Biography of Amedeo Avogadro, Italian Scientist

Amedeo Avogadro (August 9, 1776–July 9, 1856) was an Italian scientist known for his research on gas volume, pressure, and temperature. He formulated the gas law known as Avogadros law, which states that all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, have the same number of molecules per volume. Today, Avogadro is considered an important early figure in atomic theory. Fast Facts: Amedeo Avogadro Known For: Formulating the experimental gas law known as Avogadros lawBorn: August 9, 1776 in Turin, ItalyDied: July 9, 1956 in Turin, ItalyPublished Works: Essai dune manià ¨re de dà ©terminer les masses relatives des molà ©cules à ©là ©mentaires des corps, et les proportions selon lesquelles elles entrent dans ces combinaisons  (Essay on Determining the Relative Masses of the Elementary Molecules of Bodies and the Proportions by Which They Enter These Combinations)Spouse: Felicita Mazzà ©Children: Six Early Life Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro was born into a family of distinguished Italian lawyers in 1776. Following in his familys footsteps, he studied ecclesiastical law and began to practice on his own before eventually turning his attention to the natural sciences. In 1800, Avogadro began private studies in physics and mathematics. His very first experiments were conducted with his brother on the subject of electricity. Career In 1809, Avogadro started teaching the natural sciences in a liceo (high school) in Vericelli. It was in Vericelli, while experimenting with gas densities, that Avogadro noticed something surprising: the combination of two volumes of hydrogen gas with one volume of oxygen gas produced two volumes of water vapor. Given the understanding of gas densities at the time, Avogadro had expected the reaction to produce only one volume of water vapor. That the experiment produced two lead him to surmise that oxygen particles consisted of two atoms (he actually used the word molecule). In his writings, Avogadro referred to three different types of molecules: integral molecules (most similar to what scientists call molecules today), constituent molecules (those that are part of an element), and elementary molecules (similar to what scientists now call atoms). His study of such elementary particles was highly influential in the field of atomic theory. Avogadro was not alone in his study of gases and molecules. Two other scientists—English chemist John Dalton and French chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac—were also exploring these topics around the same time, and their work had a strong influence on him. Dalton is best remembered for articulating the basics of atomic theory—that all matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms. Gay-Lussac is best remembered for his eponymous gas pressure-temperature law. Avogadro wrote a memoria (concise note) in which he described the experimental gas law that now bears his name. He sent this memoria to De Lamà ©theries Journal de Physique, de Chemie et dHistoire naturelle, and it was published in the July 14, 1811 issue. Though his discovery is now considered a foundational aspect of chemistry, it did not receive much notice in his time. Some historians believe that Avogadros work was overlooked because the scientist worked in relative obscurity. Although Avogadro was aware of his contemporaries discoveries, he did not move in their social circles and he did not begin corresponding with other major scientists until late in his career. Very few of Avogadros papers were translated into English and German during his lifetime. Additionally, his ideas were likely neglected because they contradicted those of more famous scientists. In 1814, Avogadro published a memoria about gas densities, and in 1820 he became the first chair of mathematical physics at the University of Turin. As a member of a government commission on weights and measures, he helped introduce the metric system to the Piedmont region of Italy. The standardization of measurements made it easier for scientists in different regions to understand, compare, and evaluate each others work. Avogadro also served as a member of the Royal Superior Council on Public Instruction. Personal Life Not much is known about Avogadros private life. In 1815, he married Felicita Mazzà ©; the couple had six children. Some historical accounts indicate that Avogadro sponsored and aided a group of people planning a revolution on the island of Sardinia, which was ultimately stopped by the concession of Charles Alberts modern Constitution (Statuto Albertino). Because of his alleged political actions, Avogadro was removed as a  professor at the University of Turin. However, doubts remain as to the nature of Avogadros association with the Sardinians. In any case, increasing acceptance of both revolutionary ideas and Avogadros work led to his reinstatement at the University of Turin in 1833. Death In 1850, Avogadro retired from the University of Turin at the age of 74. He died on July 9, 1856. Legacy Avogadro is best known today for his eponymous gas law, which states that equal volumes of gasses, at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of molecules. Avogadros hypothesis wasnt generally accepted until 1858 (two years after Avogadros death)  when the Italian chemist Stanislao Cannizzaro was able to explain why there were some organic chemical exceptions to Avogadros hypothesis. Cannizzaro helped clarify some of Avogadros ideas, including his view of the relationship between atoms and molecules. He also provided empirical evidence by calculating the molecular (atomic) weights of various substances. One of the most important contributions of Avogadros work was his resolution of the confusion surrounding atoms and molecules (although he didnt use the term atom). Avogadro believed that particles could be composed of molecules and that molecules could be composed of still simpler units (which we now call atoms). The number of molecules in a mole (one gram molecular weight) was termed Avogadros number (sometimes called Avogadros constant) in honor of Avogadros theories. Avogadros number has been experimentally determined to be 6.023x1023 molecules per gram-mole. Sources Datta, N. C.  The Story of Chemistry. Universities Press, 2005.Morselli, Mario.  Amedeo Avogadro: a Scientific Biography. Reidel, 1984.

Hispanic Immigrants And The United States Education...

It is difficult for Latino Americans to succeed via United States’ education system. Like flowers planted in sterile soil, they can not bloom, not because they are unfruitful, but because the soil they are planted in is uncultivable. They are enrolled in learning environments that are unproductive. The infertility of their academic institutions is owed to the remnants of defacto segregation, lack of parental involvement in Latino students’ education, and the lack of Latino representation in school administrations. However, these issues regarding problems in the education system which have stumped the growth of Latino immigrants’ academic achievements, are merely an extension of the marginalization they have experienced all throughout their history in the United States. Essentially, the purpose of this essay is to argue that the path Latinos were placed on, upon arriving to America, does not provide them with the resources they need to mobilize academically. Literacy has been an issue for Latino students from the moment the United States seized Mexican territory in 1848 for Mexican-Americans, and from the moment it declared sovereignty over the island of Puerto Rico in 1898 for Puerto-Rican-Americans. The moment the United States converted these peoples’ official instructional language to English, it cut short their likelihoods of social mobilization. The change in curricula, left many of the Latino population trapped in America without the necessary literacy skills toShow MoreRelatedRacial Discrimination and Hispanics in the United States1512 Words   |  7 Pagesdiscrimination among Hispanics in the United States is on the rise along with stricter immigration laws, inadequate education for ESL classes, as well as they are prey to healthcare disparities. Data shows that many states in the United States are implementing tougher immigration laws for their individual states. Also, due to education cuts and kick-backs, English as a second language classes are becoming fewer in many school districts. Finally, health care disparities among Hispanics are on the riseRead MoreCultural Pluralism And Its Effects On American Culture1490 Words   |  6 Pages THE MODERN ERA In 2014, 35 million Americans identified as Hispanic, of whom 64 percent said they had Mexican heritage - almost 11 percent of the total population. As birthrates for Hispanics exceed those of Anglos, demographers estimate that by 2042 non-Hispanic whites will be a numerical minority in the United States. At the beginning of this century, there were twenty-one states where Hispanics were the largest ethnic minority. As a consequence, the nature of assimilation – historically a conflictingRead MoreThe American Education System Has A Latino Face Essay759 Words   |  4 Pagesproblem for the American education system has a Latino face.† (Gà ¡ndara) B.   Background Information-  The nation’s fastest-growing minority of the united states, it is frequently related to academic failure and dropping out; even though, most of the Hispanic students are native-Born. For this reason, it is impossible to Pretend that the Latino crisis is just the result of an immigration problem. C.   Thesis Statement – The Us education system is alarmingly promoting the Hispanic achievement gap with segregationRead MoreHistory of US Immigrants1546 Words   |  7 Pagesconsidered as contentious in the United States. More than two hundred years ago Benjamin Franklin concerned that German settler would overwhelm many predominantly British culture of the United States. In mid-nineteenth century an Irish immigrants were scorned as lazy. In the early twentieth century believed that a gesture of new immigrants-Poles, Italians, Russian Jews were too different to ever be assimilated into American life. Today, the fears are used against immigrants from Latin America, but criticsRead MoreEssay on The Impact of Latin American Immigration on America1553 Words   |  7 Pagescountry (23). Throughout past centuries, immigration has been a means of discovery and exploration of new lands. In today’s culture, immigration to the United States is an avenue for individuals who wish to start new lives and take advantage of the capitalistic, entrepreneurial system. People from many countries have migrated into the United States. Most recently, the migrants have come from Central and South American countries. 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This can traced back to mid-19th century when according to Harvest of Empire America’s annexation of Mexico which gave the United States Texas, California, and the southwest. â€Å"Mexico’s territory was cut by half and its mineral resources by three-quarters. These appalling numbers help explain so much. In fact, you can arguably lay Mexico’s poverty and loss through emigration rightRead MoreDemographic Profile : Goshen, Indiana1329 Words   |  6 Pagesgenerations of Hispanic immigrants living in Goshen (â€Å"Quick Facts- Goshen Indiana† 1). Most of the citizens, no matter the race, work for industrial employers. The major employers are Norfolk Southern, a railroad and transportation building company, and the Always in Stone Monument Company (â€Å"Hoosiers by the Numbers† 1). Employed by the same people, the citizens of Goshen live in terspersed within each other. 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The majority of Hispanic children begins formalized schooling (kinderga rten) without the economic or social resources that most other students receive, and the schools are not equipped to compensate or slow down their pace for these initial disparities. For Hispanics, initial disadvantages generally come from the parents’ immigrant and socioeconomic status along with their lack of knowledge

Foundation and Empire 9. On Trantor Free Essays

The stars were as thick as weeds in an unkempt field, and for the first time, Lathan Devers found the figures to the right of the decimal point of prime importance in calculating the cuts through the hyper-regions. There was a claustrophobic sensation about the necessity for leaps of not more than a light-year. There was a frightening harshness about a sky which glittered unbrokenly in every direction. We will write a custom essay sample on Foundation and Empire 9. On Trantor or any similar topic only for you Order Now It was being lost in a sea of radiation. And in the center of an open cluster of ten thousand stars, whose light tore to shreds the feebly encircling darkness, there circled the huge Imperial planet, Trantor. But it was more than a planet; it was the living pulse beat of an Empire of twenty million stellar systems. It had only one, function, administration; one purpose, government; and one manufactured product, law. The entire world was one functional distortion. There was no living object on its surface hut man, his pets, and his parasites. No blade of grass or fragment of uncovered soil could be found outside the hundred square miles of the Imperial Palace. No fresh water outside the Palace grounds existed but in the vast underground cisterns that held the water supply of a world. The lustrous, indestructible, incorruptible metal that was the unbroken surface of the planet was the foundation of the huge, metal structures that mazed the planet. They were structures connected by causeways; laced by corridors; cubbyholed by offices; basemented by the huge retail centers that covered square miles; penthoused by the glittering amusement world that sparkled into life each night. One could walk around the world of Trantor and never leave that one conglomerate building, nor see the city. A fleet of ships greater in number than all the war fleets the Empire had ever supported landed their cargoes on Trantor each day to feed the forty billions of humans who gave nothing in exchange but the fulfillment of the necessity of untangling the myriads of threads that spiraled into the central administration of the most complex government Humanity had ever known. Twenty agricultural worlds were the granary of Trantor. A universe was its servant. Tightly held by the huge metal arms on either side, the trade ship was gently lowered down the huge ramp that led to the hangar. Already Devers had fumed his way through the manifold complications of a world conceived in paper work and dedicated to the principle of the form-in-quadruplicate. There had been the preliminary halt in space, where the first of what had grown into a hundred questionnaires had been filled out. There were the hundred cross-examinations, the routine administration of a simple Probe, the photographing of the ship, the Characteristic-Analysis of the two men, and the subsequent recording of the same, the search for contraband, the payment of the entry tax – and finally the question of the identity cards and visitor’s visa. Ducem Barr was a Siwennian and subject of the Emperor, but Lathan Devers was an unknown without the requisite documents. The official in charge at the moment was devastated with sorrow, but Devers could not enter. In fact, he would have to be held for official investigation. From somewhere a hundred credits in crisp, new bills backed by the estates of Lord Brodrig made their appearance, and changed bands quietly. The official hemmed importantly and the devastation of his sorrow was assuaged. A new form made its appearance from the appropriate pigeonhole. It was filled out rapidly and efficiently, with the Devers characteristic thereto formally and properly attached. The two men, trader and patrician, entered Siwenna. In the hangar, the trade ship was another vessel to be cached, photographed, recorded, contents noted, identity cards of passengers facsimiled, and for which a suitable fee was paid, recorded, and receipted. And then Devers was on a huge terrace under the bright white sun, along which women chattered, children shrieked, and men sipped drinks languidly and listened to the huge televisors blaring out the news of the Empire. Barr paid a requisite number of iridium coins and appropriated the uppermost member of a pile of newspapers. It was the Trantor Imperial News, official organ of the government. In the back of the news room, there was the soft clicking noise of additional editions being printed in long-distance sympathy with the busy machines at the Imperial News offices ten thousand miles away by corridor – six thousand by air-machine – just as ten million sets of copies were being likewise printed at that moment in ten million other news rooms all over the planet. Barr glanced at the headlines and said softly, â€Å"What shall we do first?† Devers tried to shake himself out of his depression. He was in a universe far removed from his own, on a world that weighted him down with its intricacy, among people whose doings were incomprehensible and whose language was nearly so. The gleaming metallic towers that surrounded him and continued onwards in never-ending multiplicity to beyond the horizon oppressed him; the whole busy, unheeding life of a world-metropolis cast him into the horrible gloom of isolation and pygmyish unimportance. He said, â€Å"I better leave it to you, doc.† Barr was calm, low-voice. â€Å"I tried to tell you, but it’s hard to believe without seeing for yourself, I know that. Do you know how many people want to see the Emperor every day? About one million. Do you know how many he sees? About ten. We’ll have to work through the civil service, and that makes it harder. But we can’t afford the aristocracy.† â€Å"We have almost one hundred thousand.† â€Å"A single Peer of the Realm would cost us that, and it would take at least three or four to form an adequate bridge to the Emperor. It may take fifty chief commissioners and senior supervisors to do the same, but they would cost us only a hundred apiece perhaps. I’ll do the talking. In the first place, they wouldn’t understand your accent, and in the second, you don’t know the etiquette of Imperial bribery. It’s an art, I assure you. Ah!† The third page of the Imperial News had what he wanted and he passed the paper to Devers. Devers read slowly. The vocabulary was strange, but he understood. He looked up, and his eyes were dark with concern. He slapped the news sheet angrily with the back of his hand. â€Å"You think this can be trusted?† â€Å"Within limits,† replied Barr, calmly. â€Å"It’s highly improbable that the Foundation fleet was wiped out. They’ve probably reported that several times already, if they’ve gone by the usual war-reporting technique of a world capital far from the actual scene of fighting. What it means, though, is that Riose has won another battle, which would be none-too-unexpected. It says he’s captured Loris. Is that the capital planet of the Kingdom of Loris?† â€Å"Yes,† brooded Devers, â€Å"or of what used to be the Kingdom of Loris. And it’s not twenty parsecs from the Foundation. Doc, we’ve got to work fast.† Barr shrugged, â€Å"You can’t go fast on Trantor. If you try, you’ll end up at the point of an atom-blaster, most likely.† â€Å"How long will it take?† â€Å"A month, if we’re lucky. A month, and our hundred thousand credits – if even that will suffice. And that is providing the Emperor does not take it into his head in the meantime to travel to the Summer Planets, where he sees no petitioners at all.† â€Å"But the Foundation-â€Å" â€Å"-Will take care of itself, as heretofore. Come, there’s the question of dinner. I’m hungry. And afterwards, the evening is ours and we may as well use it. We shall never see Trantor or any world like it again, you know.† The Home Commissioner of the Outer Provinces spread his pudgy hands helplessly and peered at the petitioners with owlish nearsightedness. â€Å"But the Emperor is indisposed, gentlemen. It is really useless to take the matter to my superior. His Imperial Majesty has seen no one in a week.† â€Å"He will see us,† said Barr, with an affectation of confidence. â€Å"It is but a question of seeing a member of the staff of the Privy Secretary.† â€Å"Impossible,† said the commissioner emphatically. â€Å"It would be the worth of my job to attempt that. Now if you could but be more explicit concerning the nature of your business. I’m willing to help you, understand, but naturally I want something less vague, something I can present to my superior as reason for taking the matter further.† â€Å"If my business were such that it could be told to any but the highest,† suggested Barr, smoothly, â€Å"it would scarcely be important enough to rate audience with His Imperial Majesty. I propose that you take a chance. I might remind you that if His Imperial Majesty attaches the importance to our business which we guarantee that he will, you will stand certain to receive the honors you will deserve for helping us now.† â€Å"Yes, but-† and the commissioner shrugged, wordlessly. â€Å"It’s a chance,† agreed Barr. â€Å"Naturally, a risk should have its compensation. It is a rather great favor to ask you, but we have already been greatly obliged with your kindness in offering us this opportunity to explain our problem. But if you would allow us to express our gratitude just slightly by-â€Å" Devers scowled. He had heard this speech with its slight variations twenty times in the past month. It ended, as always, in a quick shift of the half-hidden bills. But the epilogue differed here. Usually the bills vanished immediately; here they remained in plain view, while slowly the commissioner counted them, inspecting them front and back as he did so. There was a subtle change in his voice. â€Å"Backed by the Privy Secretary, hey? Good money!† â€Å"To get back to the subject-† urged Barr. â€Å"No, but wait,† interrupted the commissioner, â€Å"let us go back by easy stages. I really do wish to know what your business can be. This money, it is fresh and new, and you must have a good deal, for it strikes me that you have seen other officials before me. Come, now, what about it?† Barr said, â€Å"I don’t see what you are driving at.† â€Å"Why, see here, it might be proven that you are upon the planet illegally, since the Identification and Entry Cards of your silent friend are certainly inadequate. He is not a subject of the Emperor.† â€Å"I deny that.† â€Å"It doesn’t matter that you do,† said the commissioner, with sudden bluntness. â€Å"The official who signed his Cards for the sum of a hundred credits has confessed – under pressure – and we know more of you than you think.† â€Å"If you are hinting, sir, that the sum we have asked you to accept is inadequate in view of the risks-â€Å" The commissioner smiled. â€Å"On the contrary, it is more than adequate.† He tossed the bills aside. â€Å"To return to what I was saying, it is the Emperor himself who has become interested in your case. Is it not true, sirs, that you have recently been guests of General Riose? Is it not true that you have escaped from the midst of his army with, to put it mildly, astonishing ease? Is it not true that you possess a small fortune in bills backed by Lord Brodrig’s estates? In short, is it not true that you are a pair of spies and assassins sent here to – Well, you shall tell us yourself who paid you and for what!† â€Å"Do you know,† said Barr, with silky anger, â€Å"I deny the right of a petty commissioner to accuse us of crimes. We will leave.† â€Å"You will not leave.† The commissioner arose, and his eyes no longer seemed near-sighted. â€Å"You need answer no question now; that will be reserved for a later – and more forceful – time. Nor am I a commissioner; I am a Lieutenant of the Imperial Police. You are under arrest.† There was a glitteringly efficient blast-gun in his fist as he smiled. â€Å"There are greater men than you under arrest this day. It is a hornet’s nest we are cleaning up.† Devers snarled and reached slowly for his own gun. The lieutenant of police smiled more broadly and squeezed the contacts. The blasting line of force struck Devers’ chest in an accurate blaze of destruction – that bounced harmlessly off his personal shield in sparkling spicules of light. Devers shot in turn, and the lieutenant’s head fell from off an upper torso that had disappeared. It was still smiling as it lay in the jag of sunshine which entered through the new-made hole in the wall. It was through the back entrance that they left. Devers said huskily, â€Å"Quickly to the ship. They’ll have the alarm out in no time.† He cursed in a ferocious whisper. â€Å"It’s another plan that’s backfired. I could swear the space fiend himself is against me.† It was in the open that they became aware of the jabbering crowds that surrounded the huge televisors. They had no time to wait; the disconnected roaring words that reached them, they disregarded. But Barr snatched a copy of the Imperial News before diving into the huge barn of the hangar, where the ship lifted hastily through a giant cavity burnt fiercely into the roof. â€Å"Can you get away from them?† asked Barr. Ten ships of the traffic-police wildly followed the runaway craft that had burst out of the lawful, radio-beamed Path of Leaving, and then broken every speed law in creation. Further behind still, sleek vessels of the Secret Service were lifting in pursuit of a carefully described ship manned by two thoroughly identified murderers. â€Å"Watch me,† said Devers, and savagely shifted into hyperspace two thousand miles above the surface of Trantor. The shift, so near a planetary mass, meant unconsciousness for Barr and a fearful haze of pain for Devers, but light-years further, space above them was clear. Devers’ somber pride in his ship burst to the surface. He said, â€Å"There’s not an Imperial ship that could follow me anywhere.† And then, bitterly, â€Å"But there is nowhere left to run to for us, and we can’t fight their weight. What’s there to do? What can anyone do?† Barr moved feebly on his cot. The effect of the hypershift had not yet worn off, and each of his muscles ached. He said, â€Å"No one has to do anything. It’s all over. Here!† He passed the copy of the Imperial News that he still clutched, and the headlines were enough for the trader. â€Å"Recalled and arrested – Riose and Brodrig,† Devers muttered. He stared blankly at Barr. â€Å"Why?† â€Å"The story doesn’t say, but what does it matter? The war with the Foundation is over, and at this moment, Siwenna is revolting. Read the story and see.† His voice was drifting off. â€Å"We’ll stop in some of the provinces and find out the later details. If you don’t mind, I’ll go to sleep now.† And he did. In grasshopper jumps of increasing magnitude, the trade ship was spanning the Galaxy in its return to the Foundation. How to cite Foundation and Empire 9. On Trantor, Essay examples

Economic Reforms Of The Banking Sector In India free essay sample

Economic Reforms of the Banking Sector In India Indian banking sector has undergone major changes and reforms during economic reforms. Though it was a part of overall economic reforms, it has changed the very functioning of Indian banks. This reform have not only influenced the productivity and efficiency of many of the Indian Banks, but has left everlasting footprints on the working of the banking sector in India. Let us get acquainted with some of the important reforms in the banking sector in India. 1. Reduced CRR and SLR  : The Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) and Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) are gradually reduced during the economic reforms period in India. By Law in India the CRR remains between 3-15% of the Net Demand and Time Liabilities. It is reduced from the earlier high level of 15% plus incremental CRR of 10% to current 4% level. Similarly, the SLR Is also reduced from early 38. 5% to current minimum of 25% level. We will write a custom essay sample on Economic Reforms Of The Banking Sector In India or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This has left more loanable funds with commercial banks, solving the liquidity problem. 2. Deregulation of Interest Rate  : During the economics reforms period, interest rates of commercial banks were deregulated. Banks now enjoy freedom of fixing the lower and upper limit of interest on deposits. Interest rate slabs are reduced from Rs. 20 Lakhs to just Rs. 2 Lakhs. Interest rates on the bank loans above Rs. 2 lakhs are full decontrolled. These measures have resulted in more freedom to commercial banks in interest rate regime. 3. Fixing prudential Norms  : In order to induce professionalism in its operations, the RBI fixed prudential norms for commercial banks. It includes recognition of income sources. Classification of assets, provisions for bad debts, maintaining international standards in accounting practices, etc. It helped banks in reducing and restructuring Non-performing assets (NPAs). 4. Introduction of CRAR  : Capital to Risk Weighted Asset Ratio (CRAR) was introduced in 1992. It resulted in an improvement in the capital position of commercial banks, all most all the banks in India has reached the Capital Adequacy Ratio (CAR) above the statutory level of 9%. 5. Operational Autonomy  : During the reforms period commercial banks enjoyed the operational freedom. If a bank satisfies the CAR then it gets freedom in opening new branches, upgrading the extension counters, closing down existing branches and they get liberal ending norms. 6. Banking Diversification  : The Indian banking sector was well diversified, during the economic reforms period. Many of the banks have stared new services and new products. Some of them have established subsidiaries in merchant banking, mutual funds, insurance, venture capital, etc which has led to diversified sources of income of them. 7. New Generation Banks  : During the reforms period many new generation banks have successfully emerged on the financial horizon. Banks such as ICICI Bank, HDFC Bank, UTI Bank have given a big challenge to the public sector banks leading to a greater degree of competition. . Improved Profitability and Efficiency  : During the reform period, the productivity and efficiency of many commercial banks has improved. It has happened due to the reduced Non-performing loans, increased use of technology, more computerization and some other relevant measures adopted by the government. These are some of the import reforms regarding the banking sector in India. With these reforms, Indian banks especially the public sector banks have proved that they are no longer inefficient compared with their foreign counterparts as far as productivity is concerned.